Resources - FairPlayGame

Online resources

Popular Books

Thinking, Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman (2011)

Black Man in a White Coat: A Doctor’s Reflections on Race and Medicine by Damon Tweedy, MD (2015)

Microaggressions in Everyday Life by Derald Wing Sue (2010)

Despite the Best Intentions: How Racial Inequity Thrives in Good Schools by Amanda Lewis and John Diamond (2015)

Race Talk and the Conspiracy of Silence by Derald Wing Sue (2015).

Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good People by Mahzarin R. Banaji and Anthony G. Greenwald (2013).

Whistling Vivaldi: How Stereotypes Affect Us and What We Can Do (Issues of Our Time) by Claude M. Steele (2010).

The Other Wes Moore: One Name, Two Fates by Wes Moore (2011).

Academic Articles

To read more about Fair Play and other evidence-based workshops and bias interventions:

Carnes, M., Devine, P. G., Isaac, C., Manwell, L. B., Ford, C. E., Byars-Winston, A., & … Sheridan, J. (2012). Promoting institutional change through bias literacy. Journal of Diversity In Higher Education, 5(2), 63-77. doi:10.1037/a0028128

Carnes, M., Devine, P. G., Manwell, L. B., Byars-Winston, A., Fine, E., Ford, C. E., & … Sheridan, J. (2015). The effect of an intervention to break the gender bias habit for faculty at one institution: A cluster randomized, controlled trial. Academic Medicine, 90(2), 221-230. doi:10.1097/ACM.0000000000000552

Devine, P. G., Forscher, P. S., Austin, A. J., & Cox, W. L. (2012). Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(6), 1267-1278. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.06.003

Gutierrez, B., Kaatz, A., Chu, S., Ramirez, D., Samson-Samuel, C., & Carnes, M. (2014). Fair Play: A video game designed to reduce implicit bias through active perspective taking. Games for Health Journal, 3(6), 371-378. doi:10.1089/g4h.2013.0071

Isaac, C., Lee, B., & Carnes, M. (2009). Interventions that affect gender bias in hiring: A systematic review. Academic Medicine, 84(10), 1440-1446. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181b6ba00

Kaatz, A., Carnes, M., Gutierrez, B., Savoy, J., Samuel, C., Filut, A., & Pribbenow, C.M. (2017). Fair Play: A study of scientific workforce trainers’ experience playing an educational video game about racial bias. CBE-Life Sciences Education, 16(27). doi: 10.1187/cbe.15-06-0140

Pribbenow, C.M., Caldwell, K.E.H., Dantzler, D.D., Brown, P.L., & Carnes, M. (2021). Decreasing racial bias through a facilitated game and workshop: The case of Fair Play. Simulation & Gaming, 52(3). doi: 10.1177/1046878120983384

Sheridan, J., Fine, E., Romero, M., Neimeko, C.J., Carnes, M., Bell, C., & Lee, Y-G. (2021). Improving department climate through bias literacy: One college’s experience. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 27(2), 87-106. doi:10.1615/JWOMENMINORSCIENENG.2021032729

For more on how video games can be used to help learning:

Gee, J.P. (2007). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy (Rev. ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Coren, M. (2011). “Foldit gamers solve riddle of HIV enzyme within 3 weeks: The online game poses protein-folding puzzles, and participants provided insights recently that solved the structure of an enzyme involved in reproduction of HIV.” Retrieved Oct 23, 2015 from: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/foldit-gamers-solve-riddle/

Holmes, E. A., & James, E. L. (2009). Can playing the computer game “Tetris” reduce the build-up of flashbacks for trauma? A proposal from cognitive science. PLoS ONE, 4(1), e4153.

Khatib, F., & DiMaio, F. (2011). Crystal structure of a monomeric retroviral protease solved by protein folding game players. Nature Structural & Molecular Biology, 18(10), 1175–1177.

Tate, R., & Haritatos, J. (2009). HopeLab’s approach to Re-Mission. International Journal of Learning and Media, 1(1), 29-35.

To learn more about implicit biases, and about how awareness can help people behave consistently with their values:

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.

Bandura, A. (1991). Self-efficacy mechanism in physiological activation and health-promoting behavior. In J. Madden, IV (Ed.), Neurobiology of learning, emotion and affect, 229-270.

Carr, P. B., Dweck, C. S., & Pauker, K. (2012). “Prejudiced” behavior without prejudice? Beliefs about the malleability of prejudice affect interracial interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(3), 452-471.

Carton, A. M., & Rosette, A. S. (2011). Explaining bias against black leaders: Integrating theory on information processing and goal-based stereotyping. Academy of Management Journal, 54(6), 1141-1158.

Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1), 5-18. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5

Devine, P. G., & Elliot, A. J. (1995). Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton trilogy revisited. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(11), 1139-1150.

Devine, P. G., Plant, E. A., & Buswell, B. N. (2000). Breaking the prejudice habit: Progress and obstacles. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), “The Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology” Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination, 185-208.

Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 62-68. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.62

Duguid, M. M., & Thomas-Hunt, M. C. (2015). Condoning stereotyping? How awareness of stereotyping prevalence impacts expression of stereotypes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(2), 343-359.

Ericsson, A., Krampe, R., & Tesch-Roemer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363-406.

Kang, O., & Rubin, D. L. (2009). Reverse linguistic stereotyping: Measuring the effect of listener expectations on speech evaluation. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 58, 502-521.

McConnell, A. R., & Leibold, J. M. (2001). Relations among the Implicit Association Test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37(5), 435-442. doi:10.1006/jesp.2000.1470

Plant, E. A., & Devine, P. G. (2009). The active control of prejudice: Unpacking the intentions guiding control efforts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(3), 640-652. doi:10.1037/a0012960

Prochaska, J. M., Prochaska, J. O., & Levesque, D. A. (2001). A transtheoretical approach to changing organizations. Administration and Policy in Mental Health, 28, 247-61.

Sevo, R., & Chubin, D.E. (2008). Bias Literacy: A review of concepts in research on discrimination.

To learn more about the forms unintentional bias can take:

Biernat, M., & Kobrynowicz, D. (1997). Gender- and race-based standards of competence: Lower minimum standards but higher ability standards for devalued groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 544-557. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.544

Chapman, E. N., Kaatz, A., & Carnes, M. (2013). Physicians and implicit bias: How doctors may unwittingly perpetuate health care disparities. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 28(11), 1504–1510.

Cox, W. T. L., Abramson, L. Y., Devine, P. G., & Hollon, S. D. (2012). Stereotypes, prejudice, and depression: The integrated perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 427-449. doi:10.1177/1745691612455204

Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573-598. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573

Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(4), 708-724. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.708

Ghavami, N., & Peplau, L. A. (2013). An intersectional analysis of gender and ethnic stereotypes: Testing three hypotheses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(1), 113-127.

Heilman, M. E., Wallen, A. S., Fuchs, D., & Tamkins, M. M. (2004). Penalties for success: Reactions to women who succeed at male gender-typed tasks. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(3), 416-427. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.3.416

Hugenberg, K., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2003). Facing prejudice: Implicit prejudice and the perception of facial threat. Psychological Science, 14(6), 640-643. doi:10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1478.x

Kaatz, A., Magua, W., Zimmerman, D. R., & Carnes, M. (2015). A quantitative linguistic analysis of National Institutes of Health R01 application critiques from investigators at one institution. Academic Medicine, 90(1), 69-75. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000442

King, E. B., Madera, J. M., Hebl, M. R., Knight, J. L., & Mendoza, S. A. (2006). What’s in a name? A multiracial investigation of the role of occupational stereotypes in selection decisions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(5), 1145-1159. doi:10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00035.x

Koenig, A. M., Eagly, A. H., Mitchell, A. A., & Ristikari, T. (2011). Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms. Psychological Bulletin, 137(4), 616-642. doi:10.1037/a0023557

Leslie, S. J., Cimpian, A., Meyer, M., & Freeland, E. (2015). Expectations of brilliance underlie gender distributions across academic disciplines. Science, 347(6219), 262-265.

Ley, T. J., & Hamilton, B. H. (2008). The gender gap in NIH grant applications. Science, 322(5907), 1472-1474. doi: 10.1126/science.1165878

Moss-Racusin, C. A., Dovidio, J. F., Brescoll, V. L., Graham, M. J., & Handelsman, J. (2012). Science faculty’s subtle gender biases favor male students. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States Of America, 109(41), 16474-16479. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1211286109

Plaut, V. C., Thomas, K. M., & Goren, M. J. (2009). Is multiculturalism or color blindness better for minorities? Psychological Science, 20(4), 444-446. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02318.x

Rubin, D.L. (1992). Nonlanguage factors affecting undergraduate’s judgments of nonnative English-speaking teaching assistants. Research in Higher Education, 33, 511-531.

Stroop, J.R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643-662.

Uhlmann, E. L., & Cohen, G. L. (2007). ‘I think it, therefore it’s true’: Effects of self-perceived objectivity on hiring discrimination. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 104(2), 207-223. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2007.07.001

To Learn More About the Specific Types of Bias Covered in the Game:

Attributional Rationalization: Group stereotypes may lead to assumptions that people from underrepresented groups are less competent than their majority peers. As a result, they may not receive credit for their accomplishments, which are often incorrectly attributed to others or to factors other than their efforts (e.g., luck).

Biernat, M., & Sesko, A. K. (2013). Evaluating the contributions of members of mixed-sex work teams: Race and gender matter. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(3), 471-476. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.01.008

Greenhaus, J. H., & Parasuraman, S. (1993). Job performance attributions and career advancement prospects: An examination of gender and race effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 55(2), 273-297. doi:10.1006/obhd.1993.1034

Heilman, M. E., & Haynes, M. C. (2005). No credit where credit is due: Attributional rationalization of women’s success in male-female teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(5), 905-916. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.5.905

Heilman, M. E., & Herlihy, J. M. (1984). Affirmative action, negative reaction? Some moderating conditions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 33(2), 204-213. doi:10.1016/00305073(84)90021-7

Color-Blind Racial Attitudes: Color-blind racial attitudes reflect the belief that discrimination no longer exists. Though based on the positive premise that we should all be treated equally, a color-blind approach discounts the experiences of members of minority groups and can backfire to promote bias.

Correll, J., Park, B., & Smith, J. A. (2008). Colorblind and multicultural prejudice reduction strategies in high-conflict situations. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 11(4), 471-491. doi:10.1177/1368430208095401

Markus, H. R., Steele, C. M., & Steele, D. M. (2000). Colorblindness as a barrier to inclusion: Assimilation and nonimmigrant minorities. Daedalus, 233-259.

Morrison, K. R., Plaut, V. C., & Ybarra, O. (2010). Predicting whether multiculturalism positively or negatively influences white Americans’ intergroup attitudes: The role of ethnic identification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(12), 1648-1661. doi:10.1177/0146167210386118

Plaut, V. C., Thomas, K. M., & Goren, M. J. (2009). Is multiculturalism or color blindness better for minorities? Psychological Science, 20(4), 444-446. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02318.x

Richeson, J. A., & Nussbaum, R. J. (2004). The impact of multiculturalism versus color-blindness on racial bias. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(3), 417-423. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2003.09.002

Competency Proving: To counter common assumptions about their presumed incompetence, members of minority groups frequently and repeatedly have to demonstrate that they are indeed qualified, capable, and/or competent.

Cheryan, S., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). When positive stereotypes threaten intellectual performance: The psychological hazards of ‘model minority’ status. Psychological Science, 11(5), 399-402. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00277

Hodson, G., Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Processes in racial discrimination: Differential weighting of conflicting information. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(4), 460-471. doi:10.1177/0146167202287004

Vescio, T. K., & Biernat, M. (1999). When stereotype-based expectancies impair performance: The effect of prejudice, race, and target quality on judgments and perceiver performance. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29(7), 961-969. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199911)29:7<961::AIDEJSP977>3.0.CO;2-4

Waldman, D. A., & Avolio, B. J. (1991). Race effects in performance evaluations: Controlling for ability, education, and experience. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(6), 897-901. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.76.6.897

Failure to Differentiate: Members of a particular minority group may sometimes be mistaken for one another by a person of a different group. All groups share this unintentional recognition bias, but research suggests the effect is most pronounced for White individuals when viewing racial and ethnic minorities.

Bernstein, M. J., Young, S. G., & Hugenberg, K. (2007). The cross-category effect: Mere social categorization is sufficient to elicit an own-group bias in face recognition. Psychological Science, 18(8), 706-712. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01964.x

Hugenberg, K., Miller, J., & Claypool, H. M. (2007). Categorization and individuation in the cross-race recognition deficit: Toward a solution to an insidious problem. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(2), 334-340. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.02.010

Tanaka, J. W., Kiefer, M., & Bukach, C. M. (2004). A holistic account of the own-race effect in face recognition: Evidence from a cross-cultural study. Cognition, 93(1), B1-B9. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2003.09.011

Impression Management: People from historically low status or underrepresented groups must often pay more conscious attention to how they behave (e.g., a Black student may consciously modulate his/her tone of voice or volume of speech to prevent activating the racial stereotype of being angry or aggressive) or how they dress in order to reinforce their professional role. A casual appearance may elicit prevailing negative images of their group.

Abrams, L., & Trusty, J. (2004). African Americans’ racial identity and socially desirable responding: An empirical model. Journal of Counseling and Development, 82(3), 365-374. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2004.tb00322.x

Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Doubleday.

Turnley, W. H., & Bolino, M. C. (2001). Achieving desired images while avoiding undesired images: Exploring the role of self-monitoring in impression management. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(2), 351-360. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.2.351

von Hippel, W., von Hippel, C., Conway, L., Preacher, K. J., Schooler, J. W., & Radvansky, G. A. (2005). Coping with stereotype threat: Denial as an impression management strategy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(1), 22-35. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.1.22

Racial Microaggressions: Microaggressions are brief and subtle comments, behaviors, or environmental cues that intentionally or unintentionally communicate hostile, derogatory, or unwelcoming messages toward members of underrepresented groups. When accumulated, these seemingly minor messages lead to harmful isolation and alienation. There are three types of microaggressions: microassaults, microinsults, and microinvalidations.

Boysen, G. A., & Vogel, D. L. (2009). Bias in the classroom: Types, frequencies, and responses. Teaching of Psychology, 36(1), 12-17. doi:10.1080/00986280802529038

Cabrera, A. F., & Nora, A. (1999). Campus racial climate and the adjustment of students to college. Journal of Higher Education, 70(2), 134-160.

Constantine, M. G., & Sue, D. W. (2007). Perceptions of racial microaggressions among black supervisees in cross-racial dyads. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(2), 142-153. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.2.142

McCabe, J. (2009). Racial and gender microaggressions on a predominantly-white campus: Experiences of black, latina/o and white undergraduates. Race, Gender and Class, 133-151.

Smith, W. A., Allen, W. R., & Danley, L. L. (2007). ‘Assume the position…You fit the description’: Psychosocial experiences and racial battle fatigue among African American male college students. American Behavioral Scientist, 51(4), 551-578. doi:10.1177/0002764207307742

Sue, D. W. (2010). Microaggressions in everyday life: Race, gender, and sexual orientation. Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Sue, D. W. (2010). Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact. Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., & Holder, A. B. (2008). Racial microaggressions in the life experience of Black Americans. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 39(3), 329-336. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.39.3.329

Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Nadal, K. L., & Torino, G. C. (2008). Racial microaggressions and the power to define reality. American Psychologist, 63(4), 277-279. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.63.4.277

Sue, D. W., Lin, A. I., Torino, G. C., Capodilupo, C. M., & Rivera, D. P. (2009). Racial microaggressions and difficult dialogues on race in the classroom. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(2), 183-190. doi:10.1037/a0014191

Sue, D.W, Torino, G. C., Capodilupo, C. M., Rivera, D. P., & Lin, A. I. (2009). How white faculty perceive and react to difficult dialogues on race: Implications for education and training. The Counseling Psychologist, 37(8), 1090-1115. doi:10.1177/0011000009340443

Torres, L., Driscoll, M. W., & Burrow, A. L. (2010). Racial microaggressions and psychological functioning among highly achieving African-Americans: A mixed-methods approach. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29(10), 1074-1099. doi:10.1521/jscp.2010.29.10.1074

Shifting Standards of Judgment: The presumed incompetence of members of underrepresented groups causes well-qualified underrepresented individuals to be judged as highly competent when compared to members of their group. But, they are held to even higher standards and require greater proof of competence than comparable members of the majority group.

Biernat, M., Collins, E. C., Katzarska-Miller, I., & Thompson, E. R. (2009). Race-based shifting standards and racial discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(1), 16-28. doi:10.1177/0146167208325195

Biernat, M., Fuegen, K., & Kobrynowicz, D. (2010). Shifting standards and the inference of incompetence: Effects of formal and informal evaluation tools. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(7), 855-868. doi:10.1177/0146167210369483

Biernat, M., & Manis, M. (1994). Shifting standards and stereotype-based judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(1), 5-20. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.1.5

Gushue, G. V. (2004). Race, color-blind racial attitudes, and judgments about mental health: A shifting standards perspective. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(4), 398-407.

doi:10.1037/0022-0167.51.4.398

Kobrynowicz, D., & Biernat, M. (1997). Decoding subjective evaluations: How stereotypes provide shifting standards. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33(6), 579-601. doi:10.1006/jesp.1997.1338

Thompson, M., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2002). When being different is detrimental: Solo status and the performance of women and racial minorities. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 2(1), 183-203. doi:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2002.00037.x

Status Leveling: Based on stereotypes about the lower social standing of minority groups, status leveling occurs when a person from an underrepresented group is assumed to belong to a lower social category or position.

Kanter, R. M. (1977). Some effects of proportions on group life: Skewed sex ratios and responses to token women. American Journal of Sociology, 965-990.

Smith, E. M. (1985). Ethnic minorities: Life stress, social support, and mental health issues. The Counseling Psychologist, 13(4), 537-579. doi:10.1177/0011000085134002

Stereotype Threat: Stereotype threat occurs when awareness of negative stereotypes about one’s own group induces stress and anxiety about confirming the stereotype. Situations that consciously or unconsciously trigger stereotype threat can lead members of minority groups to underperform relative to their ability.

Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(2), 113-125. doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1491

Aronson, J., Quinn, D. M., & Spencer, S. J. (1998). Stereotype threat and the academic underperformance of minorities and women. In J. K. Swim, C. Stangor, J. K. Swim, C. Stangor (Eds.) Prejudice: The target’s perspective (pp. 83-103). San Diego, CA, US: Academic Press.

Brown, R. P., & Pinel, E. C. (2003). Stigma on my mind: Individual differences in the experience of stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(6), 626-633.

doi:10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00039-8

Croizet, J., Després, G., Gauzins, M., Huguet, P., Leyens, J., & Méot, A. (2004). Stereotype threat undermines intellectual performance by triggering a disruptive mental load. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(6), 721-731. doi:10.1177/0146167204263961

Gonzales, P. M., Blanton, H., & Williams, K. J. (2002). The effects of stereotype threat and double-minority status on the test performance of Latino women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(5), 659-670. doi:10.1177/0146167202288010

Shapiro, J. R., & Neuberg, S. L. (2007). From stereotype threat to stereotype threats: Implications of a multi-threat framework for causes, moderators, mediators, consequences, and interventions. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11(2), 107-130. doi:10.1177/1088868306294790

Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613-629. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613

Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797. doi: /10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797

Taylor, E., & Antony, J. S. (2000). Stereotype threat reduction and wise schooling: Towards the successful socialization of African American doctoral students in education. Journal of Negro Education, 184-198. doi: 10.2307/2696231

Tokenism: Tokenism is treating members of minority groups as representative of their entire group rather than as individuals, especially when they are a numeric minority or the only person from that group present (solo status).

Craig, K. M., & Feasel, K. E. (1998). Do solo arrangements lead to attributions of tokenism? Perceptions of selection criteria and task assignments to race and gender solos. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28(19), 1810-1836. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1998.tb01347.x

Gay, G. (2004). Navigating marginality en route to the professoriate: Graduate students of color learning and living in academia. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 17(2), 265-288. doi:10.1080/09518390310001653907

Laws, J. L. (1975). The psychology of tokenism: An analysis. Sex roles, 1(1), 1-67.

Moradi, B., & Neimeyer, G. J. (2005). Diversity in the ivory white tower: A longitudinal look at faculty race/ethnicity in counseling psychology academic training programs. The Counseling Psychologist, 33(5), 655-675. doi:10.1177/0011000005277823